Child Development Models Essay Example for Free

Child Development Models Essay This essay will describe the different explanations for childrens behaviour, examining the Psychodynamic, Behaviourist and Social Learning perspectives. It will also evaluate each of these theories and make reference to their practical application. In doing so, the essay will set out how parents, child psychologists, social workers and teachers can aim to understand childrens behaviour.  As Haggerty (2006) states, The theory supporting psychodynamic therapy originated in and is informed by psychoanalytic theory. The psychoanalytic approach to therapy was developed by Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychiatrist. Freuds model proposed that an individual has three elements to their psychological self: the ego, superego and id. The id is the most primitive, consisting of largely unconscious  biological impulses. The ego uses reality and its  consequences to modify the behaviour being urged by the  id. The superego judges actions as right or wrong based  on the persons internal value system.  (Strickland ed., 2001, p.637)  According to Freud, children progress through various psychosexual stages of development. He claimed that, at particular points in the process, a single body part is particularly sensitive to erotic stimulation (Stevenson, 1996). The first stage begins at birth and continues until approximately 1 year old. It is classified as The Oral Stage because the mouth and lips are the main focus, displaying biting, sucking and chewing behaviour. The Anal Stage comes next and usually occurs between 1 and 3 years old. Toilet training encourages the child to enjoy expelling faeces. At this point the id will be satisfied by this instantaneous pleasure and will be in conflict with the ego and superego, which are concerned with controlling bodily functions to satisfy social expectations and practicality.  The Phallic Stage occurs between approximately 3 and 5 years old and contains one of Freuds most controversial theories, the Oedipus complex (or Electra complex in females). His theory states that the child becomes focused upon the genital area and experiences turmoil in the form of an unconscious desire to possess the opposite-sexed parent and eliminate the same-sexed parent. What Freud termed the Latency Period comes next. He believed that sexual drive lay dormant due to repressed impulses and desires. At this stage, children focus upon non-sexual activities and form same-sex friendships.  At approximately 12 years old, a child faces puberty and enters what Freud classes as The Genital Stage. The focus returns to the genitals but this time in relation to others. There is now an interest in relationships and exploring sexuality. When a child is unable to resolve the conflicts that occur at any of these stages, fixation can occur. If needs are not met in a satisfactory way or if the individuals conscience or superego cannot deal with impulses and drives to love and to hate, then complex character traits emerge (Errington and Murdin, 2006). For example, oral fixation may result in an adult displaying pessimism, sarcasm or gullibility, whilst phallic fixation may result in recklessness or fear of commitment. Freud, like many who begin a movement, now receives much criticism. One area of weakness is the limited scope of his research, as his therapy work mainly focused upon upper middle class women. Another popularly criticised aspect of Freuds work is the emphasis on sexuality as, in his view, everything seems to stem from expression or repression of the sex drive (Boeree, 2006). Despite criticism, Freuds methods underpin the commonly held belief that childhood experiences are hugely important to personality development. In practical terms, those working with children today place great importance on ensuring that a childhood contains opportunities to develop, to learn the difference between right and wrong, and to learn to appropriately act upon or repress urges.  Behaviour therapy is defined as A collection of psychotherapeutic techniques aimed at altering maladaptive or unwanted behaviour patterns, especially through the application of principles of conditioning or learning. (Colman, 2006). The main influencers of this theory were Pavlov, Watson and Skinner. Ivan Pavlov, later to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his research into the digestive system, observed that dogs would salivate upon seeing their keeper, apparently in anticipation of being fed. (Strickland ed., 2001, p.478). Pavlov extended his experiment and rang a bell immediately before food was served to the dogs. Eventually, the dogs would salivate upon the bell ringing, even if no food was then served. This led Pavlov to develop an understanding of conditioned responses and unconditioned reflexes.

The Psychology of Groups Essay Example for Free

The Psychology of Groups Essay In life, people have groups that they use to compare themselves to. These groups, or reference groups, serve as benchmarks that we can compare our lives to. College students in particular have a large array of these groups because their lives are at a point where they are being shaped the most. College students are on the cusp of careers, families, and they are shaping who they want to be in the future. Parents make an excellent reference group for college students because they generally have well established careers and families. Kids grow up modeling their behavior after their parents, so it is natural that they would use their parents as a reference group throughout their lives. Parents are important reference groups because the person referencing them has close emotional ties with them, and are a benchmark for success at home, and in careers. Coworkers are another important reference group as well. Coworkers are often times people well established in careers, and can serve as a good benchmark for success at work. We can use coworkers to compare how we are doing in our field of work in regard to doing the work, getting promotions, and balancing work and home life. I think the most important reference group that college students have are other college students. College is a competitive place, since the people with the highest grades get the best rank in each class. Referencing your peers is a good way to judge your progress in college, and can make you more competitive in college and later in life. In conclusion, the most important reference groups that a college student can have are parents, coworkers, and other college students. These groups serve as benchmarks for making progress in our lives, can make us more competitive, and show us how we can make ourselves better.

Benefits Of Ict In Education Education Essay

Benefits Of Ict In Education Education Essay ICT has so many advantages in the learning and teaching process. Classroom management is one of them that gained benefits from ICT. According to experienced teachers who use ICT in their classrooms that ICT may make the classroom controlling more effortless because ICT provides materials that make the class more interesting and easy to control (Cox and Webb, 2004). The existence of several sorts of ICT tools gives the class other support of learning especially in terms of visual and auditory learning. Thus the definition of classroom management Content management occurs when teachers manage space, materials, equipment, the movement of people, and lessons that are part of a curriculum or program of studies (Froyen Iverson, 1999, p. 128). This managing will lead to organizing students behavior. Jacob Kounin (1970) has vital studies about effective classroom management, which obtained to systematic results in classroom management techniques. Also, he found critical dimensions of effective class control containing the following issues: withitness: teachers know what each pupil is doing; they have eyes in the back of their heads so are able to pay attention to several things at the same time; Letting pupils know what behavior is expected of them at any given point in time; Smoothness: teachers are able to guide pupil behavior verbally or non- verbally without having to interrupt teaching; Maintaining group focus and interest. Leask and Pachler(2005:44) ICT is beneficial for teachers too, to discipline students deportments in the class. In withitness teachers never are busy with other things in the class while answering a question or other activities (Leask and Pachler, 2005). They should pay their attention to students behaviour even they observe them out of the corner of their eye, it will be good. In addition, students know what they are going to do next time. Finally, in smoothness teachers use efficient techniques that guide students in a way, which does not lead to a noisy atmosphere in the class, but without interrupting teaching process. ICT and Motivation: The British educational communications and technology agency (Becta, 2003) has a research about ICT and motivation, which reports that regular use of ICT across various curriculum subjects, may have a useful motivational impact on students learning (cited in Cox, 1997). It is clear that students stand more time in front of their tasks by using ICT like computer than other methods such as: classic method, which was manual, which is manual. ICT may solve discipline problems and decrease them. Moreover, students who used ICT for educational reasons in school feel more successful were more motivated to learn and have raised self-confidence and self-esteem (cited in Software and information industry association 2000). For example, while writing a paragraph by hand there is no grammar check to correct mistakes, but while ICT programs such as Microsoft Office word, which will detect most of the spelling and grammar mistakes. This process will encourage and motivate students certainly. Leask and Pachler, 2005 refer that the impaCT2 project evaluated the motivation of students through 15 case studies in their books. Researchers found that ICT not only encourages students to become more concentrated on the task. ICT also was seen by some teachers to improve both the competency and cognitive functioning (Cited in Comber et al., 2002, p. 9). Effective learning and teaching with ICT: In the late of 20th century and with the beginning of 21st century, ICT has played roles from simple to vital roles especially in developed countrys school. Learning and teaching process become more effective by using ICT. The use of ICT has developed in different ways to meet the needs of learners in different curricular areas. The use of ICT can: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ help learners be creative; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ be a useful aid to problem solving; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ provide ready access to a world of knowledge and research; and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ improve the quality of presentation. (2004, p. 7) ICT assisted students to be more creative in their learning process and it is a beneficial support for problem solving by using different ICT facilities such as: software programs, Internet, and printer. Today, learners have thousands of resources by using ICT in condition while sitting in their home not by searching for knowledge in libraries. Presentations became visual and auditory for students in addition to using software programs like power point. However, all these factors need effective teachers and managements or administrators to apply and achieve these effective benefits on students. The educational effectiveness of ICTs depends on how they are used and for what purpose. And like any other educational tool or mode of educational delivery, ICTs do not work for everyone, everywhere in the same way. (Tinio(2002), p. 19). The useful use of ICT in educational and pedagogical fields changes from person to person and from place to place. It bases on how they are practiced and for which reason. Undoubtedly, some educators use technology in particular computer and the Internet more efficiently than others. They know very well how they use it and when or where and for which occasion. Hence, teaching students the effective use of ICT especially in enhancing access and raising quality is another reason to promote students performance by using ICT and gaining more. The Barriers or Obstacles to the development and integration of ICT in education In the twentieth century schools encounter a number of difficulties including integration of information and communication technologies into the teaching and learning, education curriculum and change in methods in pursuit of developing learner lifelong learning skills (Sabaliauskas and Pukelis, p. 1). Undoubtedly, this is a complex process to change the system of learning and teaching from a traditional method to ICT method. Some people like (Schoepp, 2005) called difficulties as barriers. A barrier is defined as any condition that makes it difficult to make progress or to achieve an objective (Schoepp, 2005, p. 2). There are many barriers or difficulties that stand up in front of the development of ICT in education. Teacher-level barriers are lack of teacher confidence, competence and resistance to change negative attitudes. Also, there are school-level barriers, which are lack of time, lack of effective training, lack of accessibility, and lack of technical support (Bingimlas, 2009, p. 237- 241) Disadvantages of ICT Obviously, there are several kinds of drawbacks of ICT in the classroom or outside classroom. The costs of equipments are so expensive that prevent more schools to purchase. Sometimes, students engage with ICT tools for other purposes. Also, ICT is not safe usually for saving data and information because the potential errors may occur in the Windows program or other software programs and hacking by others. The following disadvantages give a list of objectives that staff and facilitators may be required to deal with should problems occur throughout using the ICT equipment. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Cost à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Distractions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reliability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Damage à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Safety à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Hacking (Anon, 2008, http://www.newman.ac.uk/Students_websites/~s.r.i.whitton/Advantages%20%20disadvantages.htm) Integrating ICT throughout the curriculum Jhurree (2005) states that the educational and pedagogical mend happen throughout the world to promote educational level. The integration of ICT in education system is one of them. The effective integration of ICT into classroom needs a systematic plan and scheme. Also, it depends on the policy makers how well understand the dynamics of integrating of ICT. Yet, ICT has been a complex issue because it will change the education completely. The difference that ICT will make in education is conditioned by what education wants to realize with ICT in the context of its needs and strategic ends. The educators must have developed the practice. It begins by good planning that provides the real state of the learners based on globally accepted curricular standards. The value of the ICT tools to make a difference is dependent on the educators identification of the instructional outcomes, methods and materials that ICT can bring efficiently and effectively deliver for the teachers and the learners (Macasio, J. (2008), http://aralaneteacher.ning.com/forum/topics/integrating-ict-in-teaching) Levine (1998) emphasises that the significance of planning, which is based on serious school needs then to be achievable and realistic. The scheme or policy should be practical to solve or change the school situation and to improve learning environments that will be effective. To attain objectives that have not been attained efficiently otherwise: expanding access, promoting equality, improving the internal efficiency of educational systems, enhancing the quality of education, and preparing new and old generations for a technology-driven market place (Haddad and Jurich, 2002, p. 47). The integrating ICT into education offers many useful factors such as: an evolved learning environment for learners by giving motivation that make them to work with instruction interestingly and efficiently. ICT has the capability for making instruction easier, more challenging and motivating for teachers. Nowadays, it is possible to contact with people throughout the world by using ICT especially comput er and the Internet. Teachers play a crucial professional role in ensuring that the integration of ICT into pedagogies is educationally sound. They evaluate the appropriateness and effectiveness of available technologies, deciding when and how to use them with their students.(MCEETYA (2005), p. 4). Teachers integrating ICT into their education need suitable learning activities and facilities to: motivate, engage, and personalize learning. Also, developing ICT literacy establishes communities of learning. ICT and assessment Previously, teachers were assessing their students in different methods such as: exam, quiz, writing essay, assignments, and oral exams, but all these methods were inside the class. Nowadays, information communication technology has changed the situation by using computer and the Internet but it is in the beginning of the loop. Students can send their assignment to their teacher by e-mail or exams and also (open-book; structured; timed). Participation in online discussions Publication of student work /presentations Experiential activities, such as role-play Debates Reviews Journals and reflection (Anon, http://learnline.cdu.edu.au/t4l/elearning/onlineassessment.html#options) These are all methods that give students an opportunity to access online and share their ideas and requirements? As can be seen, assessment opportunities making use of the web are still rather similar to non-computerized methods and often only use computer communication to submit or comment on students work in traditional ways. Where computer testing per se is used it often comprises short answers and multiple- choice questions Leask and Pachler(2005:136)

The Difficulty of Measuring the Cost of Living Essay -- Economics

The Difficulty of Measuring the Cost of Living Cost of living is designed to measure the costs of maintaining living standards of working- class households. It was first introduced in 1914. It is difficult to measure the cost of living because prices are constantly changing, meaning cost of products will change too. Prices will change for instance due to increases in costs or inflation, so if a can coke was $1 in 2000, due to an increase in wage demands, costs have increased and thus the selling price of coke has increased to $2 in 2001. This happens to many commodities in the market and as a result of that it is difficult to measure the price of products as that are constantly changing over a period of time. The quality of products also changes, however this will appear on the cost of living index. For instance computers, CD players, televisions are of better quality now than they were before and that is why their prices have increased. However only the price of the product will be mentioned in the index, not the fact that its quality has been improved. Their design and performance also changes. So a price change will accompany the introduction of a new model or an improved design. Therefore it is difficult to assess the real nature of the price change. An example is the price if BMW cars has increased by 10 percent, but the quality, performance and design of the new model is much better and superior to that of the older model, has the exchange value increased or decreased? Tax also affects the cost of living because; changes in indirect taxes will affect te goods and services we purchase. Taxes will either increase or decrease due to the fluctuating inflation rate. Changes in the indirect tax... ...uct. This is known as the need for change and it's a psychological aspect more consumers go through. Also new products are invented, consumers get curious and want to try them out and this leads to changes in tastes and fashion. This causes a problem with weighting. Therefore measuring the cost of living is very difficult, because prices change, quality changes, and consumer's tastes and fashion change. Also this is the generation of technology meaning new inventions are being developed faster than any of us can imagine, meaning the cost and living index needs to be updated regularly and meaning it is not very accurate. Also there are millions of people in each country, how can you possibly know what is the average spending habit? To assume there is one, you must neglect people who don't fit that criteria meaning, the cost of living guide is inaccurate.

Capital Punishment has NO Place in Civilized Society :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Capital Punishment has no Place in Civilized Society Since our nation's founding, the government -- colonial, federal and state -- has punished murder and, until recent years, rape with the ultimate sanction: death. More than 13,000 people have been legally executed since colonial times, most of them in the early 20th Century. By the 1930s, as many as 150 people were executed each year. However, public outrage and legal challenges caused the practice to wane. By 1967, capital punishment had virtually halted in the United States, pending the outcome of several court challenges. In 1972, in _Furman v. Georgia_, the Supreme Court invalidated hundreds of scheduled executions, declaring that then existing state laws were applied in an "arbitrary and capricious" manner and, thus, violated the Eighth Amendment's prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment, and the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantees of equal protection of the laws and due process. But in 1976, in _ Gregg v. Georgia_, the Court resuscitated the death penalty: It ruled that the penalty "does not invariably violate the Constitution" if administered in a manner designed to guard against arbitrariness and discrimination. Several states promptly passed or reenacted capital punishment laws. Thirty-seven states now have laws authorizing the death penalty, as does the military. A dozen states in the Middle West and Northeast have abolished capital punishment, two in the last century (Michigan in 1847, Minnesota in 1853). Alaska and Hawaii have never had the death penalty. Most executions have taken place in the states of the Deep South. More than 2,000 people are on "death row" today. Virtually all are poor, a significant number are mentally retarded or otherwise mentally disabled, more than 40 percent are African American, and a disproportionate number are Native American, Latino and Asian. The ACLU believes that, in all circumstances, the death penalty is unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment, and that its discriminatory application violates the Fourteenth Amendment. Here are the ACLU's answers to some questions frequently raised by the public about capital punishment. Doesn't the Death Penalty deter crime, especially murder? No, there is no credible evidence that the death penalty deters crime. States that have death penalty laws do not have lower crime rates or murder rates than states without such laws. And states that have abolished capital punishment, or instituted it, show no significant changes in either crime or murder rates. Claims that each execution deters a certain number of murders have been discredited by social science research. The death penalty has no deterrent effect on most murders because people commit murders largely in the heat of passion, and/or under the influence of alcohol or drugs, giving little thought

Coke vs Pepsi Fighting for Foreign Markets :: GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

Coke vs Pepsi Fighting for Foreign Markets Introduction The soft-drink battleground has now turned toward new overseas markets. While once the United States, Australia, Japan, and Western Europe were the dominant soft-drink markets, the growth has slowed down dramatically, but they are still important markets for Coca-Cola and Pepsi. However, Eastern Europe, Mexico, China, Saudi Arabia, and India have become the new "hot spots." Both Coca-Cola and Pepsi are forming joint bottling ventures in these nations and in other areas where they see growth potential. As we have seen, international marketing can be very complex. Many issues have to be resolved before a company can even consider entering uncharted foreign waters. This becomes very evident as one begins to study the international cola wars.

Princess Regional Trucking Company Essay

Princess Regional Trucking Company has been approached by a client with an opportunity that would require 120 trailers which is about 20 more than we currently own. We are not sure how long the relationship with this customer will last but this deal has the potential for considerable growth. I have a great deal of information for you regarding lease options that Princess Regional Trucking Company may want to consider before going forward with this deal. The first type of lease to consider is the direct financing lease. This lease is used by lessors in capital leases if the collections of minimum lease payments are guaranteed and the amounts of unrefundable costs are known in advance. In this type of lease the bank will buy new trucks and lease them to us instead of Princess Regional Trucking Company borrowing the money to purchase the trucks. The direct financing approach is the same as a loan. In order to arrange this type of lease we must show that the monthly payment will be met every month on time. This can be done by putting up assets to cover the payments just in case we cannot lease what is secured by the direct lease. Eliminating any question or doubt about the ability to cover the lease is the ultimate goal. If you would prefer to go with the Capital lease option then it must meet one of the four criteria according to FASB ASC 840-10-25-1. There has to be a transfer of ownership to the lessee by the end of the lease term, the lease contains a bargain purchase option, the lease term is equal to 75% or more of the estimated economic life of the leased property, or the present value at the beginning of the lease term of the minimum lease payments, equals or exceeds 90% of the excess of the fair value of the leased property. If any of the four criteria is met and also meets both of these criteria’s in that the lease payments have to be reasonable and the costs to be incurred are also predictable the lease is considered to be either direct financing or sales-type (http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0073526878/588542/Codification_Updates.pdf) The next type of lease to be addressed is a sales-type lease. Just like the capital lease there are for criteria that must be met. If the manufacture or dealer risks profit or loss then this would be a sales-type lease. This would mean that the seller would keep the assets in their inventory while the manufacturer or dealer are still earning profit or taking a loss. Under FASB ASC 840-30-35-22 the lessor must amortize the unearned income on a sales-type lease to income over the lease term to produce a constant periodic rate of return on the net investment in the lease.(http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0073526878/588542/Codification_Updates.pdf) Since the important part of a sales-type lease is the sale the initial direct costs of getting the lease is written off when the sale is recorded at the beginning of the lease. This would be noted on the income statement as a selling expense. The final type of lease option would be an operating lease. This type of lease allows use of an asset but does not transfer ownership of the asset. The assets are expected to be returned at the end of the lease agreement. This lease would give Princess the sole right to use the asset however the lessee would retain all risks and rewards of ownership. It would be shown as a rental expense on the balance sheet. It is considered an asset for us and gets depreciated like any other asset. This type of lease is usually short term but it can be cancelled if needed. Thank you for taking the time to review these three different types of leases for the additional trucks we need to satisfy our new customer. Since we are not certain the time frame of this relationship I would like to suggest going with the operating lease since it is more like a rental agreement.