Application of Learning Theories to Teaching

Application of Learning Theories to Teaching THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES FOR PLANNING AND ENABLING LEARNING TASK 1 Learning Styles Learning styles impact on every aspect of our lives: how we gather information, how we use it and how we link it together are all determined by our learning style. Nicholls Le Versha 2003, p. 57 Learning styles, or cognitive styles, refer to how individuals learn in different ways and are of particular importance to teachers who wishes to create inclusive and effective learning situation. Learning styles are divided primarily, but not exclusively, into the three groups of visual learners, aural learners and kinesthetic learners. Whilst the first group learns best by seeing information, such as on the board or visually demonstrated, the second group takes in information aurally and needs to hear what is happening. The third group understands best in a hands-on, tactile manner such as holding the materials or practicing working with them. The importance of catering for learning styles links to the importance of understanding how best to cater for cognitive development. Learning style research has its roots in the humanistic social constructivism generated by Vygotsky and his follows. Here the stress is on the interaction of socio-cultural factors in the development of the indi vidual and it is easy to see how necessary it is to make information available to students at a number of levels and thereby take into account their individual approach to learning. Motivation Motivation is a complex area and can have a huge impact on learner achievement and behavior which means that motivational teaching strategies need to be carefully considered. Extrinsic motivation is essentially a behaviourist concept in that certain behaviours are encouraged by rewards, ranging from praise to money. The use of extrinsic motivation in teaching corresponds to Pavlov and Skinner’s early work in that the reward is used to induce certain behaviours, such as praise for completing a test resulting in a positive approach to the next text. Intrinsic motivation is more of an internal driving force that may come from factors as diverse as curiosity to enjoyment. It could be argued that promotion of the former concept tends towards competition whilst the latter is more focused on individual achievement through improvement. Competition is often seen as a negative and seen as ‘undermining student motivation’ (p. 275) in that it de-motivates those who consistent ly fail as well as providing little incentive for those who already make the grade. Therefore, to encourage and inclusive approach means providing sources of motivation that best suit the student but always aim to achieve intrinsic, progress based achievement. Low Literacy At a more pragmatic level, the impact of low literacy (and numeracy) upon student’s confidence and learning can be enormous. Whatever the cause, be it students with English as a second language, or those struggling with work that is beyond their emotional age or cognitive stage, it is essential for the teacher to assess literacy levels through a diagnostic assessment and plan accordingly. It may be that students metalinguistic (how language works) awareness can be built up using the subject, such as working through an understanding of acids and alkali’s as they relate to beauty treatment. The use of IT as well as text to develop literacy has also stimulated a vast body of research (e.g. Larson Marsh 2005). This area deserves far more attention than the brief mention given here, but it is also an area that may benefit from an action research approach whereby the literacy strategies of the class are assessed, observed, analysed and acted upon in an ongoing reflective cyc le. Classroom Environment The learning environment and its impact upon students have also generated a considerable body of literature. Whilst Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs (1970) looked at a generic sequence of responses to environments, a more holistic understanding of the environments that affect a student’s learning have been studied by those such as Bronfenbrenner (1998) who conceptualized a variety of ecological systems, from the micro to the macro. The microsystem involves the individual’s direct interactions with other individuals whilst the macrosystems take into account the socio-cultural values and ‘norms’ (Krause et al. 2003, p. 264) . The classroom environment not only needs to provide a safe, secure and supportive atmosphere, it also needs to provide an inclusive setting for all individuals which means taking factors such as gender, race, ethnicity, age and stage etc into consideration. Alongside these runs the teachers own teaching styles – permissive , authoritative or authoritarian (Whitton et al. 2004, 185) – and how they respond to the students. Effective Planning and Intelligence If the goal of teaching is to provide learning environments that work for all students, then clearly planning is an integral element. To take one part of the teaching cycle, planning, is to look at one aspect of this vast area. In a constructivist paradigm, planning needs to both develop knowledge and play to students strengths. Rather than look at this structurally, as in planning using cooperative groups, whole class or individual working, this section considers interpretations of intelligence such as Gardner’s multiple intelligences (Krause et al 2003, p. 201) and Sternberg’s triarchic model of intelligence (ibid p. 202). As with learning styles, failure to plan effectively in order to encourage a range of cognitive strengths may act as disincentive. Sternberg differentiated between analytic, creative and practical intelligences and suggested applying these to the curriculum. They provide a useful strategy for inclusive teaching. TASK 2 Engagement Theory Whilst this has its roots in distance learning and the use of IT (Kearlsey Shneiderman 1999), the premises upon which it is based appear particularly useful to effective, inclusive planning. One of the primary principles is to plan for authentic learning through student interaction and provision of meaningful tasks. Secondly, this is essentially a constructivist approach aimed at enabling the individual’s translation and internalization of knowledge through guided progression to various zones of proximal development. Thirdly, in common with situated learning, engagement theory is underpinned by a wish to create learning experiences that intrinsically motivate through exposing students to real-world problem solving situations. The levels of engagement also relates to inclusive planning for learning styles and multiple intelligences. With regard to planning for engagement, lessons need to include a range of teaching strategies such as questioning, reasoning, analysing, creating and judging. This involves creating practical, curriculum linked situations and designing the lesson around them. For example, one lesson may involve a scenario, analysis of that scenario, role play of the events, creating alternatives and assessing final comprehension. This methodology allows for an inclusive approach designed to allow information to be made available to students in a variety of ways and formats. Principles of Empowerment This is also a somewhat generic principle yet it applies to teaching very successfully. One of the underlying goals is to set students up for success by ensuring the tasks are age and stage appropriate and that they stretch the student towards their zones of proximal development whilst ensuring successful outcomes. Another aspect of this principle is that students take responsibility for their learning. Ownership of one’s development has been shown to be a powerful motivator and motivation is recognised a key element to learning. Motivation resides entirely in the person motivated. It can be inspired and encouraged by others but not given. Leamnson 1999, p. 54 A third element of this principle refers to student choice. Whilst the learning requirements remain the same, the choice of learning strategy, resource use and methodology may be used to allow students to choose their favored approach. Planning to empower students and therefore engage them in their learning once again means catering for all learning styles and planning for choice. Working in the area of Beauty therapy allows for considerable choice of approach and lends itself to practical training. This does mean that resources and activities have to be well structured and planned before implementation but it also means students can find a number of ways of achieving the required learning. A criticism is that students will not be required to use their less favoured approach and thereby develop areas they feel less confident in. TASK 3 Reflection I find that catering for all learning styles is a far more complex area that needs more consideration. For example, at one level catering for learning styles means providing information in a way that an individual can take in. However, at another level, it also requires a more holistic overview that takes into consideration the students socio-cultural values and ‘norms’. Therefore, integrating this overview within my planning cycle requires several considerations. For example, it requires the allowing of space and consideration for analysing and assessing the student’s background knowledge, understandings and value systems. This will strengthen my understanding of how best to communicate with individual students and support their own sense of value and security within the classroom. It is anticipated that this approach will allow for a better consideration of student comfort and perceptions of security through providing familiar formats and establishing a comfort zone. As Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs showed, it is difficult for students to function psychologically at a higher level if they do not feel safe and secure within their environment. Therefore, when planning, I intend to not only cover the various learning styles but to integrate this with socio-culturally and linguistically inclusive practice. Depending on the situation, this can be as diverse as providing materials in more than one language or selecting cooperative groups with common understandings. This is not to say that the expectations will be lessened. These need to be clearly established and provide the working format for the students. For example, they will be expected to achieve certain goals and be able to effectively communicate or demonstrate their learning. Catering for learning styles is an inclusive strategy as is that of catering for different students cognitive strengths. Consideration of practical application of strategies that include the diversity of multiple intelligences appears to be somewhat over-whelming. Sternberg’s triarchic model (Krause et al. 2003, p. 202) simplifies this into a planning procedure that endows each subject with an analytic, creative and practical component. This is particularly helpful for the beauty industry as it encourages an all round interaction both with the information, the practice and the people concerned. As a practical vocation, beauty requires strong communication and practical skills and the tendency is to stress this practical element. However, Sternberg reminds us that a triarchic approach is more inclusive and works better for a wider range of people. I would like to bear this in mind when planning my lessons and appreciate that this will demand constant assessment and reflection i n order to be at its most effective. Professional development The following is a professional development plan involving some of the primary issues looked at in this essay. It is very much an overview and the course titles are purely to provide direction rather than actual titles. It is anticipated that this will change as the reality of working within specific scenarios provides the benefit of experience. This table is also specific to the area of inclusivity and its associated planning. There are many other areas that would also benefit my practice. Professional Development Plan GOALS COURSES EXAMPLE THEORIES PROVIDERS DATE Improve Instructional Process Theory into Practice Learning styles Engagement and Motivation Improve inclusive planning Cultural inclusivity Curriculum links How to Apply Theory to Improved Practice Catering for Learning Styles How to Empower and Motivate Students Planning to include cultural diversity – setting expectations and treating diversity positively Assessment for Planning Curriculum correspondence with inclusive teaching practice SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM HUMANISM AND BEHAVIOURISM Vygotsky’s social constructivism Piaget’s age and stage theories Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences Sternberg’s triarchic model of intelligence Weiner’s attribution theory Bandura’s behavioural theories of learning Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory Erikson’s psychosocial development stages NB there is considerable interaction between the theories/principles listed here and the list is by no means exclusive. References Bronfenbrenner, U. Morris, P (1998) ‘The ecology of developmental processes’ in R M Lerner (Ed) Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development, 5th Ed., pp. 535-584, Wiley: New York Kearsley, G. Shneiderman, B (1999) ‘Engagement Theory: A framework for technology-based teaching and learning’, accessed 28th September 2008, http://home.sprynet.com/~gkearsley/engage.htm Krause, K-L., Bochner, S. Duchesne, S (2003) Educational Psychology for teaching and learning, Thomson: Southbank, VIC. Larson, J. Marsh, J (2005) Making Literacy Real: Theories and Practices for Learning and Teaching, Sage: London Leamnson, R (1999) Thinking about Teaching and Learning, Stylus Maslow, A (1970) Motivation and Personality, 2nd Ed., Harper Row: New York Nicholls, G. Le Versha, L (2003) Teaching at Post-16: Effective Teaching in the A-Level, AS and GNVQ Curriculum, Kogan Page: London Pressley, M. McCormick, C (2007) Child and Adolescent Development for Educators, Guildford Press: New York Whitton, D., Sinclair, C., Barker, K., Nanlohy, P. Nosworthy, M (2004) Learning for Teaching, Teaching for Learning, Thomson: Southbank, VIC.

Theater Review: No Child

In 2001 President George W. Bush proposed the No Child Left behind Act which forced schools to take action with the below average test scores. Due to this act schools are required to have their students take tests and have a certain percentage increase in grades every year otherwise there would be consequences from a school being labeled as a needing improvement to the extreme of having it privately run or shut down. The play â€Å"No Child† written by Nilaja Sun acts as a direct commentary for the need of the No Child Left behind Act. In this play the characters and their actions have such a strong correlation to the real problems that students in under privileged societies in America face as well as the need for reform in the education department. (No Child Left Behind) The setting of the play is the school that seems unfit for children to be going to receive an education. The janitor describes the school â€Å"The building fallin apart, paint chipping, water damage, a whole in the fourth floor ceiling that aint been fixed since 87, all the bathrooms on the third floor, they all broke. The school is also described by the janitor as having â€Å"one hundred thousand dollars' worth of security system which includes two metal detecting machines, seven metal detecting wands, five school guards and three NYC police officers. All armed†. (Sun 5) These descriptions of the school itself appear that education is not the primary focus of the leadership in the school district. It seems that the funding that the school is being given is not being utilized to its full potential for the benefit of the student's education. In public schools across the nation this is the actual setting of how the school can be described. With the No Child Left Behind act schools are pushed to make education the primary focus in order to give students an equal chance at life afterwards. (No Child Left Behind) As stated earlier the characters have a strong correlation to students and educators in real life. Being a teacher is described as being â€Å"underpaid, unappreciated, and underpaid job in this crazy universe. (Sun 6) The tenth grade class in this play is group of disrespectful, hopeless kids that are just pushed around all day and treated as if they are convicts themselves. It seems that in this story every person who is in a position to make a positive change whether it be the parents or the teachers push it off on someone else to do. The first teacher that the audience encounters is a woman named Ms. Tam who is underpaid and unappreciated as well as blatantly disrespected by her students and has no control over them. It gets to the point that Ms. Tam actually ends up leaving because she cannot handle the students. Prior to the No Child Left Behind act new teachers were only required to have bachelor's degree, be fully certified and to have a subject matter knowledge generally through tests. After the act was implemented, the standards for all teachers were required to be highly qualified which is different in every state regardless if they are new or have reached their tenure. The act also makes it so the teacher's salary could be raised or dropped depending on how the students performed on their tests. By doing this teachers are required to take responsibility for their students which requires them to go above the bare minimum. (No Child Left Behind) The next teacher that the audience sees interaction with between the students is Ms. Sun. Right off the bat the audience sees that she is someone that not only cares about what she is teaching but about the students that she is teaching. She lays down rules about being in class on time, eating in class and being respectful to everyone. She gets the students to actually care and want to take part of the play that she was hired to be in charge of a play that the students previously scoffed at. By getting the students to take part of the play actually gives them a greater hope for their future that they don't have to end up hopeless, a characteristic that society has already label them as being. These are the teachers that the No Child Left behind act is instituting, teachers that have the ability to push their students to have an equal chance that privileged and well educated students have. Ms. Sun is not here to do the bare minimum required; she is here to make a change in students who just need guidance. (No Child Left Behind) The students are probably the most important characters in this play in correlation to the No Child Left Behind act. The audience gets to see the transformation that begins to take place in the students after a teacher who goes above and beyond what her peers are doing with their students. In the beginning of the play the students proudly characterize themselves as the worst class ever. Mrs. Kennedy later on refutes this claim by saying, â€Å"Look, I understand that they consider themselves the worst class in school. News Flash – they're not even close. (Sun 21) It is this statement that the audience can understand that although this class is pretty horrible there are worse classes which shows that it is the school as a whole that is failing at their job. Towards the end of the play the students have done a complete 180. Not only are they wanting to take part of the play but they are doing what they need to for class such as showing up on time, not eating in class and not being disruptive. One of the students who were initially the leader of not doing the play actually says that he is looking forward to taking part of it next year. All that it took was a determination of the teacher to push past the expectations of failure of these students and found a way to reach them. At the end of the play instead of every student being a failure as originally thought some go on to Harvard while others make proud livings for themselves. The play was a strong motivator that provoked emotion and the responsibility to help the cause. The play was more than direct commentary in one's opinion, and more a piece of propaganda to move the audience to join the fight. The play shows the horrors of reality and a resolution that leaves the children and audience with hope. The bottom line is to show the audience that these children are not hopeless or lost causes and they need people to have hope and believe their fate is not sealed with the circumstances they were born into.

English speech- RAW / Girl, Interrupted Essay

No institution can possibly survive if it needs geniuses or supermen to manage it. It must be organized in such a way as to be able to get along under a leadership composed of average human beings. â€Å"While an institution might encourage individuals to change through enforcing rules and regulations, it is the individual who ultimately holds the power to change.† -Scott Monk Scott Monk uses the protagonist Brett Dalton in the novel RAW as the individual who is able to change his previous life and attitude through the effect of the institution, The Farm. Scott sets the readers mind straight away with the first 3 words of the book, â€Å"busted, Brett panicked.† The reader immediately registers that Brett is a criminal which emphasizes the dramatic change Brett experiences during his stay on the farm. As a caretaker, Sam says to Brett at the beginning, â€Å"just remember, Brett: only you can change your life†. He implies that the power to change lives within the individual. Before becoming friends with Sam, Brett often protested against his rules and regulations due to his previous negligent personality. In response to these restrictions, Brett leaves in hope for the city, but gives in after he realises he would not be able to cope with society. This is where I felt Brett is beginning to alter his personality, and respect Sam’s authority. As this friendship develops, others are created. In the past Brett had severe difficulty confronting his problems, and first instinct in a sticky situation was to run away. This could be said as conforming with everyone else, as they too in the past must have been in the same situation, but are now friends with Sam, and have ultimately changed their lives. An example of this is the way that Josh. He, demonstrates to everyone that reads the book that institutionalisation can indeed be a positive experience. Brett admits this â€Å"positive experience† in the ending of the novel where Sam questions him, â€Å"did you learn anything while you were here?† to which Brett answers, â€Å"yes, of course. Lots of stuff. Like friendship, trust, love, and loss.† This to me sounds like words coming from a normal, happy, average human being. The concept of change in an individual is equally evident in Susanna Kaysen in the movie Girl, interrupted. The director, James Mangold, introduces the main character in a similar fashion to how Scott Monk introduces Brett Dalton in Raw. Susanna Keysen’s faults and flaws are exposed immediately, first seen being taken to the hospital after trying to kill herself with vodka and Aspirin pills. The audience’s immediate reaction is that something is wrong with her. Her psychologist establishes this after her recovery, asking questions like â€Å"Are you stoned?† and â€Å"how are you feeling right now?† to which her response was â€Å"I don’t know.† He then sends her to Claymore, a private mental institution. During her stay at claymore, Susanna experiences much of what Brett describes he had experienced at the farm. He mentions friendship, trust, love, and loss which is everything Susanna came across. She made many new friends while being in the establishment, realising that crazy people aren’t so scary, but are fun, interesting people to be around. As she grows closer to all of them (In particular, Lisa), she learns to trust them and adapts to their behaviours in the institution. Unfortunately, their flaws also begin to have an affect on Susanna. An example of this is the way Susanna acts out of character when Valerie tosses her into a cold bath unexpectedly. She imitates Janet Webber’s racist comments and mocking tone when she had her clothes denied due to the lack of eating. One day while escaping the world with Lisa, Susanna discovers that sometimes to be sane can be a choice to some people; everyone is insane, but the insanity is to be kept to yourself, and if expressed, you are considered to be crazy. Something’s are just not meant to be said. The line between normal and crazy is a blurry one even in today’s world. I believe sane and insane can be defined as common or uncommon behavior. Support and help is still given without having to be hospitalized. In the end of the novel, Susanna â€Å"recovers† from her diagnosis although she never really understood it or even knows if she really is â€Å"recovered.† She feels the same way about leaving the hospital as when she came in the hospital.

10 Facts About Elephants